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Behaviorist Principle
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors." :::::::::::::: - John Watson Behaviorism The term behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913). Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors. According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. It suggests that only observable behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions, and moods are too subjective. As Watson's above quote suggests, strict behaviorists believe that any person could potentially be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of their physical capabilities); all it takes is the right conditioning. Major Types of Conditioning 1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. 2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Prononents of the Behaviorism Theory *Ivan Pavlov *B. F. Skinner *Edward Thorndike *John B. Watson *Clark Hull Foundations of Behaviorism in Education In B. F. Skinner’s Behaviorism, the major theories as pertaining to education are reinforcement, verbal behavior theories, and social development theories. Though all aspects of Behaviorist theory have influenced the world of education, Behaviorist reinforcement theory still impacts education widely today especially when looking at educational technology. Skinner (1958) has found that “behavior is shown to be shaped and maintained by its ‘reinforcing’ consequences rather than elicited as conditioned or unconditioned response to stimuli” (972). This idea has been molded into many educational practices, and the idea of reinforcement has had many implications for educational technology specifically, which will be examined later. History of Behaviorism in Educational Technology '' The utilization of Behaviorist theory in education has changed quite a bit though some aspects remain parallel despite the changing times. Behaviorism has seen the Teaching Machine Phase, the Programmed Instruction Phase, and the Systems Approach to Instruction. The Teaching Machine is perhaps of the most interest when examining educational technologies of today, as the machines were very basic versions of what educational software and computers can accomplish now. The teaching machine was, in essence, a box that sat on student desks that each individual student could use to record answers to certain prompted questions. Skinner (1958) provided background information about the teaching machines and called them “devices which arrange optimal conditions for self-instruction” (p. 971). He stated that “Sidney L. Pressey designed several machines for the automatic testing of intelligence and information, which will encourage the student to take an active role in the instructional process” (p. 973). An example of the classroom use of the Teaching Machine is as follows. “In using the device the student refers to a numbered item in a multiple-choice test. He presses the button corresponding to his first choice of answer. If he is right, the device moves on to the next item; if he is wrong, the error is tallied, and he must continue to make choices until he is right” (Skinner, p. 971). We can clearly see the similarities between the Teaching Machine and much of today’s instructional computer software, designed for reinforcing student behavior. Computers and software are, in essence, much more complex versions of the Teaching Machine, which leads us to conclude that many of the roots of Behaviorism have come along with us into present day educational scenarios. The concepts behind the Teaching Machine and modern-day computer gaming software, for example, are fundamentally equal. The Teaching Machine example allows us to draw such interesting conclusions as there are so many linkages to today’s instruction. Current Trends of Behaviorism in Educational Technology '' ''Sutton (2003) has discussed the current trends in instructional technology that encompass Behaviorist and Constructivist theories. Though discussing primarily Constructivist ideals, he states that there are many aspects of Behaviorism that are positive and that have led to the development of important instructional technologies. Examples of Behaviorism in current trends are instructional software and computer-assisted instruction. Shield (2000) also discussed the use of drill and practice tutorials, with individual instructions and feedback drill and practice. This type of learning, where a “student is rewarded through an encouraging comment before moving on to the next learning objective” (1) is especially apparent in the use of “the computer games that are so highly addictive to teenagers,” (1) as their “learning behavior is being progressively rewarded as each level of the game is mastered” (1). Shield concluded that “the student's mastering of basic technological terms, descriptions of components, and understanding of theory behind technical processes can be achieved through structured programs delivered through CD-ROMs or similar media. We can, therefore immediately see a place for ICT in technology education, both as a source of information and also, if structured effectively, a context or structure for learning simple skills and concepts. Different learning objectives may require different teaching and learning strategies to achieve them. Some aspects of learning require basic low-level information as a preliminary activity before the more complex can be internalized. Often the rote learning of factual information is essential before a learner can be engaged in problem solving or those higher order activities deemed more desirable. While Behaviorism is said to have a number of views, this view of learning drives a lot of current educational practice where competencies and standards have become established indicators of achievement” (1). Shield summarizes much of what current Behaviorists focus on, stating that it is sometimes necessary to memorize bits of information before higher- level, problem-based learning can take place. He also brings up the interesting point that much of today’s curriculum focuses on these memorized bits of information, and we can clearly conclude that this is a strong reason why so many Behaviorist practices are still relevant in today’s educational tactics. Important Events in Behaviorism *1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes. *1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The article outlined the many of the main points of behaviorism. *1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert" experiment. *1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published. *1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles. *1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal Behavior." *1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in which he argued that free will is an illusion. Criticisms of Behaviorism *Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement and punishment. *People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement. Strengths of Behaviorism *Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults. References Ebert, A. ''Behaviorism vs. Constructivism in the Technological Secondary Education Classroom.